1. How can we avoid using toxic lead chromate and lead molybdate without affecting the colour of the paint?
Due to the toxicity of lead pigments, countries are increasingly restricting their use in paints. Formulators usually use organic pigments in combination with titanium dioxide to replace lead pigments. However, in some applications, organic pigments combined with metal oxide mixed pigments (inorganic composite colouring pigments) exhibit better performance than titanium dioxide. The inherent vivid tones, saturation and high covering power of mixed metal oxide pigments give formulators more possibilities to reduce expensive organic pigments in the formula and reduce or even eliminate the use of titanium dioxide.
For organic pigments, there are also many pigments that show very good hiding power and weather resistance and can be used to replace lead pigments. Red pigments include Pigment Red 48:4, Red 112, Red 170, Red 254, Red 255, Violet 19, etc. Orange pigments include Pigment Orange 36 and Pigment Orange 73. Yellow pigments include Pigment Yellow 74, Pigment Yellow 109, Pigment Yellow 110, Pigment Yellow 139, Pigment Yellow 151, Pigment Yellow 154, etc. Among yellow pigments in particular, we recommend the use of bismuth vanadium molybdate yellow (pigment yellow 184), which is much brighter than the mixed metal oxide pigment titanium nickel (pigment yellow 53), and has stronger colouring power, better hiding power (you can even do without adding titanium dioxide), and outstanding heat and weather resistance. Finally, it is worth mentioning that compared with lead-containing pigments, as long as there is good dust removal equipment in the production (inhaling pigment dust is harmful to the human lungs), these pigments are considered safe and non-toxic.
2. What factors affect the flocculation of pigments in the coating system?
The following parameters can affect flocculation:
Viscosity: At low viscosities, pigment particles are more mobile. Therefore, reducing the viscosity of the paint system will make the flocs smaller and the flocculation rate will decrease. Temperature: The effect of temperature on viscosity is obvious. An increase in temperature will cause a decrease in viscosity. This indirectly reduces flocculation.
Drying time (drying time, the time between two wet-on-wet spray coats, or the time needed for a large quantity of solvent to evaporate before entering the oven): too long a drying time can also cause a large amount of pigment flocculation.
Titanium dioxide: titanium dioxide with an uncoated surface shows a strong tendency to flocculate. Pigment particle size and particle size distribution: small pigment particles are more active in the coating system, and the likelihood of them colliding with each other and causing flocculation increases. However, this is not absolute. If the particle size of the pigment is very small, it will lead to an increase in the viscosity of the entire system. The movement of the pigment particles is reduced, and flocculation is less likely to occur.
Pigment concentration (titanium dioxide and colouring pigments): Increasing the pigment concentration will cause the viscosity of the system to increase, reducing the tendency to flocculate.
Binders: Small binder molecules are more easily adsorbed onto the pigment surface, but due to their small size, the steric hindrance between the pigment particles is also small, which is more likely to cause pigment flocculation. At the same time, the chemical structure of the binder is also related to the flocculation of the pigment.
Solvent: Choosing the right solvent will cause the binder polymer molecules to fully stretch, increasing the mutual repulsive force between the pigment particles. This prevents the pigment from flocculating. A bad solvent shrinks the binder polymer molecules into a clump, reducing the steric hindrance between the pigment particles and promoting the flocculation of the pigment.
3. What types of phthalocyanine blue can be used in the paint industry?
Phthalocyanine blue is mainly composed of copper phthalocyanine. It has a complex chemical structure and appears as a dark blue powder. Phthalocyanine blue has many crystalline forms, and there are three commercial forms: α-type phthalocyanine blue (Pigment Blue 15), which has a reddish glow and relatively high colour strength; β-type phthalocyanine blue (Pigment Blue 15:3), which has a greenish glow and relatively high thermodynamic stability; and ε-type phthalocyanine blue (Pigment Blue 15:4), which has a relatively bright reddish glow. (Pigment Blue 15); β-type phthalocyanine blue (Pigment Blue 15:3) with a greenish hue and relatively the best thermodynamic stability; and ε-type phthalocyanine blue (Pigment Blue 15:6) with relatively the brightest reddish hue. In aromatic solvents (e.g. xylene), the α-type phthalocyanine blue is converted to the more stable β-type phthalocyanine blue. To prevent this conversion, a proportion of copper(I) phthalocyanine is usually incorporated during the pigment processing of crude phthalocyanine blue to form the solvent-stable α-type phthalocyanine blue or Pigment Blue 15:1.
Since the surface of phthalocyanine blue pigments is non-polar, the interaction with the binder is weak in many coating systems, resulting in poor stability of the pigment dispersion. Coating systems containing phthalocyanine blue pigments are prone to flocculation or stratification during storage. This disadvantage was greatly improved by surface treatment and chemical modification of the molecular structure of the solvent-stable Pigment Blue 15:1. The modified phthalocyanine blue pigments are designated Pigment Blue 15:2 in the dye index.
In the paint industry, the reddish α-type phthalocyanine blue is more popular than the greenish β-type phthalocyanine blue because of its bright colour, strong tinting strength, easy dispersion and good fluidity. Because flocculation does not only occur in relation to the pigment, but also in relation to the binder and solvent of the paint system, it is impossible to find a phthalocyanine blue variety that exhibits the best anti-flocculation properties in any paint system. This also requires paint workers to conduct a large number of experiments for different paint systems to derive the best formulation combination.
4. What method can be used to quickly determine the dispersing properties of a pigment?
There are many direct and indirect methods for evaluating the dispersing effect of pigments. For example, direct methods include the fineness plate method and optical and electron microscopy.
Fineness plate method:
The Hegman test is a simple and quick method for determining the fineness of grinding for liquid systems. The Hegman fineness test plate is a rectangular piece of stainless steel with two shallow grooves on the surface. The grooves are precision-machined to gradually become shallower from 100 microns to 0 microns. A small amount of the grinding material is added to the deepest part of the groove, and a stainless steel double-edged spatula is used to scrape across the entire surface at a uniform speed to the end of the groove with a depth of zero. The scale is marked at equal intervals next to the groove, decreasing uniformly from zero at the deepest point of the groove to 8 or 10 on the horizontal surface of the fineness plate. The scale at which the pigment particles are clearly visible as protruding from the surface of the ground material is considered to be the indicator of the degree of dispersion. Usually, a scale of at least 7 is considered to be effective dispersion.
Fineness test method:
The use of an optical microscope provides a quick and visual method of checking the fineness of the pigment particles. The colouring power of the pigment can also be observed.
In addition, the shape, size and distribution of the pigment particles can be observed, as well as the flocculation of the pigment. The method involves placing a small drop of the ground material on a glass slide and covering it with a cover slip. Care should be taken not to press the cover slip too hard, as this could cause the material to spread and affect the test result. The main disadvantage of optical microscopy is that the resolution is too low, with the smallest resolution being about 2 microns.
Electron microscopy fineness test method:
The high resolution of electron microscopy is a major advantage, as it allows the particle size of the pigment to be observed directly, and it is the particle size of the pigment that has a decisive influence on the transparency, flow and hue of the coating.
The disadvantages of the electron microscope fineness test method are mainly the high price of the equipment, the long testing time, the need for an experienced technician to analyse and interpret the test data, and the fact that the measurement can only be carried out after the sample has dried.
5. What does pigment solvent resistance mean?
In paint production, we must evenly and stably disperse the pigment in most organic binders (composed of resins and solvents), which means that the pigment must be surrounded by organic solvents. In addition, most paints, after being coloured with pigments, inevitably come into contact with organic solvents (detergents, petrol and lubricants etc.) frequently during their useful life. This means that the pigments must be as insoluble as possible in organic solvents. If they are not insoluble, we should be aware that there is a limit to the amount of pigment that can be added to various organic solvents. Exceeding this tolerance will result in staining caused by the pigment dissolving in the solvent. The solvent resistance of a pigment is essentially its resistance to staining caused by the solvent dissolving the pigment. Inorganic pigments (determined by their own chemical structure) and some organic synthetic pigments with complex structures generally have good solvent resistance. However, some lower-grade organic pigments and pigments with surface treatments have poor solvent resistance. The solvents used to determine the solvent resistance of pigments include water, turpentine, toluene, xylene, methyl ethyl ketone, ethanol, ethyl acetate, diethylene glycol and trichloroethylene.
6. What is the difference between the lightfastness and weather resistance of pigments?
Many paints that use pigments (or dyes) as colourants need to maintain the stability of their inherent colour during application. We define the lightfastness of a pigment as a qualitative technical indicator of the pigment’s resistance to sunlight. Of the components of sunlight, the most damaging to the lightfastness of pigments is ultraviolet light (UV). When we discuss the lightfastness of a pigment, we are only evaluating the qualitative technical indicator of the pigment’s ability to withstand the light environment in the external environment. In fact, it is difficult to define weather conditions accurately. From a certain point of view, the lightfastness index of pigments that excludes other external environmental factors may help us to give a meaningful and reproducible objective evaluation of the field stability of coatings. The lightfastness index of pigments is affected by a variety of external environmental factors, including sunlight exposure, high-energy ultraviolet radiation, temperature, humidity and the erosion of various impurities in the atmosphere. The lightfastness index of pigments can be measured by outdoor exposure experiments or indoors by artificial atmospheric aging equipment to simulate the field environment. Outdoor exposure tests are usually carried out at specific locations, which are often areas with very harsh climatic conditions (intense sunlight, heavily polluted industrial atmospheres, etc.). The most famous outdoor exposure test location is Florida, USA. Test specimens are generally placed at an orientation of 5 degrees south of due south and exposed for 12 months or more for outdoor exposure tests.
7. What can oil absorption tell us?
Wetting is a very important part of the dispersion process. The effectiveness of wetting depends largely on the affinity between the dispersing medium and the surface morphology of the pigment, as well as the spatial interaction between the molecular morphology of the dispersing medium and the structure of the pigment agglomerates. Put simply, the oil absorption capacity is actually the minimum amount of oil required to infiltrate the surface of the pigment particles and fill the gaps between the particles. The specific quantitative method refers to the minimum amount of pure linseed oil that can be absorbed per 100 grams of pigment, which is the oil absorption of the pigment. Note that the absorption here refers to the manual blending of refined linseed oil with a spatula while adding dropwise with a buret, and the final mixture of pigment and linseed oil reaches a thick paste-like state.
For example, an oil absorption of 30 g/100 g means that 30 parts of oil mixed in the above way with 100 parts of the pigment to be tested will achieve the thick paste state required by the experiment. To a certain extent, the oil absorption reflects the specific surface area of a particular pigment. The lower the specific surface area, the lower the oil absorption, and the better the wettability of the pigment. The converse is also true.
8. What measures can I use to improve the hiding power of a coating system?
For the vast majority of paint applications, hiding power is a basic and primary performance requirement. This is particularly true for yellow paints, as yellow pigments have poor light absorption and hiding power can only be achieved by scattering light. This is why the industry has long believed that bright organic yellow pigments have poor hiding power. Therefore, when formulators can only choose a single pigment, they often choose chrome yellow (the refractive index of inorganic pigments is about 2.5), which has a stronger scattering effect and higher hiding power, rather than organic yellow pigments (the refractive index of organic pigments is about 1.6). Of course, in cases where pigments can be mixed, formulators can increase the hiding power and colour strength of organic pigments by adding high-coverage inorganic pigments (titanium dioxide, iron oxide pigments). Adding titanium dioxide to improve the hiding power of the system is probably the most widely used method. However, we should not forget that there is also a way to improve hiding power by increasing light absorption. For example, a little carbon black tolerated by the system will greatly improve the hiding power of organic red. The almost complete absorption of light by carbon black makes up for the relative absorption and poor scattering ability of organic pigments, which makes up for the lack of coverage. However, it must be emphasised that the fewer pigments in the formula, the better the colour saturation. The addition of inorganic pigments with high sunlight absorption must be within the limits of the formula.
9. What adverse effects will the separation of different pigments in the paint have on the entire system?
In the paint industry, it is very common for the pigments in the paint to separate from each other, especially when the formula contains two or more pigments. Pigment separation can lead to uneven distribution of pigments on the surface of the dried coating. If the phenomenon of excessive pigments in some areas is caused by the difference in concentration of the pigments on the surface of the coating film, we call it ‘mottling’. Mottling is actually the vertical dispersion of the pigment mixture, which causes the components of the pigment mixture to separate from each other. The pigment concentration is the same in the vertical direction of the paint film, the colours are the same, the horizontal direction has a different concentration and the colours are different. The appearance of the paint film is uneven with a mesh and stripes.
If the pigment concentration on the surface of the paint film is the same, but the concentration inside the paint film is different, we call it floating colour. Floating colour is a horizontal dispersion of the pigment mixture. The pigment concentration is the same horizontally, the colours are the same, but the pigment concentration is different in the lower layer. We can observe floating colour when the paint is applied to a glass plate. The separation of pigments is largely related to the different migration rates of different pigments in the formula. Dispersants can improve this type of paint defect.
10. What does the paint hiding power index indicate?
Light passing through a transparent medium can pass through without any change, and then be reflected on the surface of the substrate. Light that encounters an opaque medium cannot penetrate, and can only be absorbed or reflected. When discussing the optical properties of pigments, we cannot simply use the terms transparent or opaque.
Hiding power refers to the ability of a pigment to hide the underlying colour of an object when the pigment is evenly applied to the surface of the object in a specific paint system. Paints achieve hiding power in two ways: by absorbing and scattering light. For example, black pigments absorb light of all wavelengths and have a strong hiding power. Coloured pigments achieve hiding power by selectively absorbing light of different wavelengths. White pigments do not absorb any light and achieve hiding power mainly through strong scattering.
11. What are the technical elements of the pigment dispersion process?
Pigment dispersion in paint production generally refers to the stable and uniform dispersion of pigments in a specific medium in a solid state. It is mainly divided into four steps:a. Wetting of the pigment surface.b. Opening of the pigment agglomerates.c. Uniform distribution of the pigment particles in the paint.d. Long-term stability of the entire dispersion system.
Wetting: In fact, wetting is divided into two separate processes. Firstly, the dispersing medium (solvent or water) displaces the air from the surface of the pigment powder, and then the wetting agent softens the pigment agglomerates with the help of the wetting agent.
Opening the pigment agglomerates and uniform dispersion:
With the help of the dispersing equipment, the pigment agglomerates are opened. After this stage is complete, the pigment is uniformly dispersed in the dispersing medium in the form of primary ions.
The success of pigment disaggregation depends primarily on the dispersion equipment’s ability to achieve optimal dispersion and efficiency through high-speed shearing, collision and friction of the pigments. The shearing or friction forces must be maximised. Choosing the right dispersion equipment (determined by the chemical properties and viscosity of the dispersion medium) is crucial to achieving this ideal state.
Stability of the dispersion system
Once the pigments are dispersed in the medium, we want them to remain in the form of primary particle ions. However, in a relatively low-viscosity environment, the dispersed pigments have a tendency to re-aggregate and re-coagulate due to their mutual attraction (mainly due to the high surface energy of the pigment particles caused by their large specific surface area). This tendency is called flocculation. In order to eliminate or reduce this tendency and maintain the stable state of the primary particles of the pigment, we use the action of the dispersant to form a double electric layer and steric hindrance, etc., so that the pigment surface is charged with the same type of charge to repel each other, thus achieving the purpose of stabilising the system.
12. What is agglomeration of pigments in a coating system?
The purpose of dispersion is to coat the surface of the pigment with a sufficient amount of color developing agent or resin, thereby preventing the pigment particles from coming into contact with each other. However, sometimes the dispersed material will re-aggregate into clumps or form flocculation.
There are different meanings to re-aggregation and flocculation. Re-aggregation means that the pigments have re-adhered to form a new aggregate. The places where the pigment particles come into contact with each other are no longer blocked by the binder. Flocculation, on the other hand, means that the individual pigment particles have not lost their surface binder, but are simply loosely aggregated together and can be opened up by applying a very low shear force. In practical terms, flocculation of pigments can lead to changes in the colour properties of the pigments, such as a decrease in tinting strength, gloss and transparency. Preventing the flocculation of pigments is regarded as an important coating property throughout the paint system. Formulators prevent the flocculation of pigments by changing the surface properties of the pigments and selecting the correct coating binder.
13. How can the floating and bleeding of pigments be tested?
There are many ways to test the floating and bleeding of pigments. a. Compare the colour strength of sprayed and trowelled paint films to determine the floating and bleeding. b. The floating colour phenomenon can be observed by applying a test film to a glass plate. c. The rubbing test involves wiping a semi-dry (after flash off) film (sprayed or trowelled on) with a finger. The degree of floating colour is determined by the colour difference between the rubbed area and the original film. This is also an indicator of flocculation.
14. What pigments can be used to create camouflage coatings?
Camouflage coatings need colours that blend in as much as possible with the background of the environment (vegetation, soil, desert or sea, etc.). For example, the dark grey colour of ships makes them invisible in the ocean. With the development of modern military technology, humans have put forward higher requirements for camouflage paints. Camouflage paints must make the coated object invisible under infrared light.
In other words, within the near-infrared spectrum with wavelengths from 400 to 1200 nanometres, the colour of the camouflage paint is required to be the same as the colour of the dominant background. In particular, the camouflage paint can effectively simulate the spectral reflectance curve of objects in the natural background, so that the target can effectively blend into the background. Many traditional pigments used for colour matching in the visible light range cannot be used for infrared camouflage paints. Pigments suitable for this purpose are Pigment Yellow 119, Green 17, Green 26, Black 30, Chromium Oxide Green, Carbazole Violet, and Iron Oxide pigments. Green 17, Green 26, Black 30, Chromium Oxide Green, Carbazole Violet, and Iron Oxide pigments.
15. How is hiding power measured?
The measurement of the hiding power of a pigment is related to the paint base to which the pigment is added and the thickness of the paint applied. Under given parameters of pigment concentration and film thickness, a coating is prepared on a black and white control test card designed for hiding power, and the hiding power is calculated from the difference in colour between the black and white surfaces. Simply put, hiding power refers to the ability of a paint to hide the colour or colour difference of the substrate. Hiding power is generally expressed as a hiding power value. It is expressed in g/m2 and is the amount of paint required to just cover the black background of the card paper with a given paint concentration. Light is an important factor in hiding power testing, and only testing and comparing under natural light conditions can give an objective and correct result.
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| Polythiol/Polymercaptan | ||
| DMES Monomer | Bis(2-mercaptoethyl) sulfide | 3570-55-6 |
| DMPT Monomer | THIOCURE DMPT | 131538-00-6 |
| PETMP Monomer | PENTAERYTHRITOL TETRA(3-MERCAPTOPROPIONATE) | 7575-23-7 |
| PM839 Monomer | Polyoxy(methyl-1,2-ethanediyl) | 72244-98-5 |
| Monofunctional Monomer | ||
| HEMA Monomer | 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate | 868-77-9 |
| HPMA Monomer | 2-Hydroxypropyl methacrylate | 27813-02-1 |
| THFA Monomer | Tetrahydrofurfuryl acrylate | 2399-48-6 |
| HDCPA Monomer | Hydrogenated dicyclopentenyl acrylate | 79637-74-4 |
| DCPMA Monomer | Dihydrodicyclopentadienyl methacrylate | 30798-39-1 |
| DCPA Monomer | Dihydrodicyclopentadienyl Acrylate | 12542-30-2 |
| DCPEMA Monomer | Dicyclopentenyloxyethyl Methacrylate | 68586-19-6 |
| DCPEOA Monomer | Dicyclopentenyloxyethyl Acrylate | 65983-31-5 |
| NP-4EA Monomer | (4) ethoxylated nonylphenol | 50974-47-5 |
| LA Monomer | Lauryl acrylate / Dodecyl acrylate | 2156-97-0 |
| THFMA Monomer | Tetrahydrofurfuryl methacrylate | 2455-24-5 |
| PHEA Monomer | 2-PHENOXYETHYL ACRYLATE | 48145-04-6 |
| LMA Monomer | Lauryl methacrylate | 142-90-5 |
| IDA Monomer | Isodecyl acrylate | 1330-61-6 |
| IBOMA Monomer | Isobornyl methacrylate | 7534-94-3 |
| IBOA Monomer | Isobornyl acrylate | 5888-33-5 |
| EOEOEA Monomer | 2-(2-Ethoxyethoxy)ethyl acrylate | 7328-17-8 |
| Multifunctional monomer | ||
| DPHA Monomer | Dipentaerythritol hexaacrylate | 29570-58-9 |
| DI-TMPTA Monomer | DI(TRIMETHYLOLPROPANE) TETRAACRYLATE | 94108-97-1 |
| Acrylamide monomer | ||
| ACMO Monomer | 4-acryloylmorpholine | 5117-12-4 |
| Di-functional Monomer | ||
| PEGDMA Monomer | Poly(ethylene glycol) dimethacrylate | 25852-47-5 |
| TPGDA Monomer | Tripropylene glycol diacrylate | 42978-66-5 |
| TEGDMA Monomer | Triethylene glycol dimethacrylate | 109-16-0 |
| PO2-NPGDA Monomer | Propoxylate neopentylene glycol diacrylate | 84170-74-1 |
| PEGDA Monomer | Polyethylene Glycol Diacrylate | 26570-48-9 |
| PDDA Monomer | Phthalate diethylene glycol diacrylate | |
| NPGDA Monomer | Neopentyl glycol diacrylate | 2223-82-7 |
| HDDA Monomer | Hexamethylene Diacrylate | 13048-33-4 |
| EO4-BPADA Monomer | ETHOXYLATED (4) BISPHENOL A DIACRYLATE | 64401-02-1 |
| EO10-BPADA Monomer | ETHOXYLATED (10) BISPHENOL A DIACRYLATE | 64401-02-1 |
| EGDMA Monomer | Ethylene glycol dimethacrylate | 97-90-5 |
| DPGDA Monomer | Dipropylene Glycol Dienoate | 57472-68-1 |
| Bis-GMA Monomer | Bisphenol A Glycidyl Methacrylate | 1565-94-2 |
| Trifunctional Monomer | ||
| TMPTMA Monomer | Trimethylolpropane trimethacrylate | 3290-92-4 |
| TMPTA Monomer | Trimethylolpropane triacrylate | 15625-89-5 |
| PETA Monomer | Pentaerythritol triacrylate | 3524-68-3 |
| GPTA ( G3POTA ) Monomer | GLYCERYL PROPOXY TRIACRYLATE | 52408-84-1 |
| EO3-TMPTA Monomer | Ethoxylated trimethylolpropane triacrylate | 28961-43-5 |
| Photoresist Monomer | ||
| IPAMA Monomer | 2-isopropyl-2-adamantyl methacrylate | 297156-50-4 |
| ECPMA Monomer | 1-Ethylcyclopentyl Methacrylate | 266308-58-1 |
| ADAMA Monomer | 1-Adamantyl Methacrylate | 16887-36-8 |
| Methacrylates monomer | ||
| TBAEMA Monomer | 2-(Tert-butylamino)ethyl methacrylate | 3775-90-4 |
| NBMA Monomer | n-Butyl methacrylate | 97-88-1 |
| MEMA Monomer | 2-Methoxyethyl Methacrylate | 6976-93-8 |
| i-BMA Monomer | Isobutyl methacrylate | 97-86-9 |
| EHMA Monomer | 2-Ethylhexyl methacrylate | 688-84-6 |
| EGDMP Monomer | Ethylene glycol Bis(3-mercaptopropionate) | 22504-50-3 |
| EEMA Monomer | 2-ethoxyethyl 2-methylprop-2-enoate | 2370-63-0 |
| DMAEMA Monomer | N,M-Dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate | 2867-47-2 |
| DEAM Monomer | Diethylaminoethyl methacrylate | 105-16-8 |
| CHMA Monomer | Cyclohexyl methacrylate | 101-43-9 |
| BZMA Monomer | Benzyl methacrylate | 2495-37-6 |
| BDDMP Monomer | 1,4-Butanediol Di(3-mercaptopropionate) | 92140-97-1 |
| BDDMA Monomer | 1,4-Butanedioldimethacrylate | 2082-81-7 |
| AMA Monomer | Allyl methacrylate | 96-05-9 |
| AAEM Monomer | Acetylacetoxyethyl methacrylate | 21282-97-3 |
| Acrylates Monomer | ||
| IBA Monomer | Isobutyl acrylate | 106-63-8 |
| EMA Monomer | Ethyl methacrylate | 97-63-2 |
| DMAEA Monomer | Dimethylaminoethyl acrylate | 2439-35-2 |
| DEAEA Monomer | 2-(diethylamino)ethyl prop-2-enoate | 2426-54-2 |
| CHA Monomer | cyclohexyl prop-2-enoate | 3066-71-5 |
| BZA Monomer | benzyl prop-2-enoate | 2495-35-4 |